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Discussion on English voice
Discussion on English voice 中文摘要:
語態(tài)是一個語法范疇.它是用來表示主語和謂語動詞之間關系的一種形式.語態(tài)有主動和被動兩種形式.如果主語是動作的執(zhí)行者,謂語動詞就要用主動形式.如果主語是動作的承受者,動詞就要用被動形式.張克禮等一些語法學家認為被動語態(tài)可以分為三種:真被動,假被動和半被動.本文將簡單論述英語語態(tài).
關鍵詞: 主動語態(tài) 被動語態(tài) 轉換 限制
Abstract: Voice belongs to grammar category. It is a form of verbs which expresses the relation between the action and its subject in sentences. Indicating whether the action is performed by the subject or passes on to it. In English, there are two kinds of voice: the active voice and the passive voice. If the subject performs the action, then the verb form is in the active voice. If the subject receives the action, then the verb form is in the passive voice. Zhang Keli and some other grammarians divide the passive voice into three kinds: true-passive, pseudo-passive and quasi-passive. This paper will discuss on English voice.
Key words: active voice, passive voice, transformation, constraints, form meaning
ⅠIntroduction
English voice belongs to grammar category. It is a form of verbs between subject and verb. Traditionally, the voice of English grammar is divided into active voice and passive voice. When the subject is the executor of the behavior, the form of predicate is active voice. When the subject is the taker of the behavior, the form of predicate is passive. Many grammarians think that there are relations of transformation between active voice and passive voice. In practice, the transformation between the active form and the passive form is complicated. There are many differences between active voice and passive voice, so the transformation between the active voice and the passive voice is constrained by lexical, semantic and situation.
1.1. Usually, the active voice can be transformed into passive voice.
For examples:
A number of workers have challenged this view.
This view has been challenged by a number of workers.
A grenade killed his best friend.
His best friend was killed by a grenade.
1.2. Sometimes, the active voice can be transformed into passive voice.
For examples:
I have a house in the country.
A house is had by me in the country. (F)
She married a Frenchman.
A Frenchman was married by her. (F)
Ⅱ Passive voice
We give a simple definition to the passive voice in form, namely, be/get+ -ed. Zhang Keli and some other grammarians divide the passive voice into three kinds. Those are true-passive, pseudo-passive and quasi-passive.
2.1. True-passive
2.1.1. A sentence with executor is called true-passive. The true-passive can be divided into ideality and non-ideality.
For examples:
The violin was made by my father.
Sentence (1) is an ideality passive voice. Because it has an executor and the executor is a person. It is corresponding to the active voice: “My father made the violin.”
Coal has been replaced by oil.
Sentence (2) is a non-ideality passive. Because it doesn’t directly correspond to an actor. It can be transformed into two actors: “Oil has replaced coal.” “People have replaced coal by oil.”
2.1.2.–ed in the true-passive is called verbal-participle(動詞性分詞). The executor of true-passive refers to the person. Sometime, the executor is unclear or doesn’t be demoted. The executor just can be led by “by” or omitted.
For examples:
His best friend was killed by a grenade.
This view has been challenged by a number of workers.
The news was confirmed by a telegram.
Three machines can be controlled by a single operator.
The light is refracted by the surface of the glass.
2.2. Pseudo-passive
Another passive form is “pseudo-passive”. It is considered as passive. Because the predicate of pseudo-passive is “be+-ed”. It is impossible that pseudo-passive can be transformed into active voice. “Be” in pseudo-passives can be replaced by “become, feel, remain and seem”. The past participles can be modified by “very, quite, more and rather.” The participles in pseudo-passive don’t have the characteristics of verbal-participle. It just becomes an adjective.
For examples:
My uncle was (got or seemed) (very) tired.
The car was old and ruined.
The agentless passive sometimes is r Discussion on English voiceegarded as “subject + copula + predicative”.
2.3. Quasi-passive
2.3.1. Quasi-passive also call semi-passive. It is between true-passive and pseudo-passive. The –ed participles in quasi-passives can express the characteristics of verbal-participle and adjectival-participle. This structure can be transformed into active form. It also can be modified by “very, quite more and rather”. “Be” in quasi-passive can be replaced by “feel, seem, become and remain”.
For examples:
I was alarmed by the news.
→ The news alarmed me.
→ I was alarmed by and angry at the news.
→ I was very alarmed by the news.
→ I felt alarmed by the news.
She was irritated by these two children.
→ These two children irritated her.
→ She was irritated by and fond of these two children.
→ She was more irritated by this child than by that.
→ She appeared irritated by these two children.
2.3.2. The quasi-agent in quasi-passive can be led by “about, at, over, to, in, with.”
For examples:
She was worried about her son.
→ Her son worried her.
Betty was surprised at the gifts.
→ The gifts surprised Betty.
He was overcome with horror.
→ Horror overcome him.
2.4. In English some transitive verbs are only used in passive voice, but aren’t used in active voice. Such as: dress, shave, located, situate, satisfy, determine, doom, etc.
For examples:
Our college is situated in the suburbs.
The house is located near the lake.
She was dressed in red.
He was freshly shaved.
Ⅲ Active form expresses passive meaning
In English, the active form of some transitive verbs usually expresses active meaning. But its model is “V + Doing”.
3.1. The following verbs, such as: want, need, require, deserve, etc + doing express passive meaning.
For examples:
My room wants whitewashing.
He deserved punishing.
This problem requires discussing.
Our classroom needs cleaning.
3.2. In the following model “have/get…done”, the active form expresses passive meaning.
For examples:
I have my hair cut.
You have to make yourself understood.
Dad had me called a doctor.
He has his shirts cleaned at the dry-cleaners.
3.3. Some transitive verbs like: read, write, open, shut, fill, cook, drive, lock, cut, iron, feel, sell, wash, etc. When they are used as intransitive verbs in sentences, their active form expresses passive meaning. The subjects refer to things.
For examples:
The stone moved.
Social customs changed.
The door won’t shut.
There are some other conditions that the active form expresses passive meaning.
3.3.1. When they are used in adverbial which expresses mode of behavior, the active form expresses passive meaning.
For examples:
The bridge has washed out.
Television sets sell very well.
3.3.2. When they are used in modals, the active form expresses passive meaning.
For examples:
The box won’t lock.
The book would not translate well.
3.4. The continuous tense of verbs can express passive meaning.
(1) The potatoes are cooling.
(2) The meat is cooking.
(3) The film is showing there.
(4) The books are printing.
Ⅳ Passive form expresses active meaning
In English, some transitive verbs are only used in passive voice, but aren’t used in active voice, such as: dress, shave, locate, situate, excite, satisfy, determine, doom, born, etc.
For examples:
Our college is situated in the suburbs.
The house is located near the lake.
She dressed in red.
He was freshly shaven.
He is satisfied with my work.
I was so excited that I couldn’t say a word.
They are determined to fulfill their task a Discussion on English voicehead of time.
The plan was doomed to failure.
The flowers are faded
I was born in 1980.
ⅤVoice transformation constraints
As we all know, voice transformation can be used to express two forms:
Active voice: Executor + V + O
Passive voice: Taker + be + v-ed (by executor)
For examples:
John teaches Mary.
Mary is taught by John.
In practice, the transformation between the active and the passive is complicated. They are constrained by lexical, semantic and situation.
5.1. Lexical-constraints
5.1.1. As we all know that the active voice of transitive verbs can be transformed into passive voice. But there are some transitive verbs can’t be used in passive sentences. Transitive verbs which express condition, sentiment and understanding, etc, are usually used in active voice, such as: love、 hate、wish、 own、suit、 fit、cost 、 lack 、want、 last 、 resemble 、 suffice, etc.
For examples:
All the young men like him, but the boss hate him.
I have a dictionary.
Anytime will suit me.
He lacks confidence.
The war lasted eight years.
5.1.2. Some transitive verbs are seldom used in passive voice in sentences. People aren’t interested in the agent. Such as: elude、 escape 、 flee、get、 let、race, etc.
For examples:
He eluded capture for weeks by hiding underground.
During the civil war thousands of people fled the country.
Don’t let the dog out of the room
The policeman raced after thief.
5.1.3. The mean of transitive verbs make the sentences change into the passive voice. Because people think the action isn’t worth to mention. Like: be said/ reputed/ born caught (in) /supposed etc.
For examples:
(1) He was caught in a traffic jam.
(2) Somebody caught in a traffic jam.
(3) She is reputed to be the best singer in Europe.
(4) People reputed her to be the best singer in Europe.
(5) We are supposed to be back before dark.
(6) People suppose us to be back before dark.
We can’t say so. Sentences (2), (4) and (6) are wrong. But, usually, people don’t use passive voice on this condition.
The following words are adjective participles, so they are usually used in quasi-passive. Such as: acclaimed、alleged、annihilated、baffled、born、 compressed、conditioned、construed、couched、cremated、dazed、deafened、 debased、deemed、disconcerted、dwarfed、earmarked、empowered、fined、 gutted、headed、horrified、hospitalized、indicated、inundated、 jailed、misdirected、overcome、paralyzed、penalized、perpetrated、pilloried、populated、 prized、punctuated、rationed、reconciled、reprieved、reunited、rumored、shipped、 shipwrecked、short-listed、shrouded、staffed、stranded、strewn、subsumed、 suspended、wounded, etc.
5.1.4. When the verbs are used in the perfect continuous tense. They can’t be transformed into passive voice.
For examples:
(1) He has teaching English.
(2) English has been being taught by him. (F)
(3) English has been taught by him. (F)
(4) The dog has chasing Michael.
(5) Michael has been being chased by the dog. (F)
(6) Michael has been chased by the dog. (F)
From this six sentences, we know that the perfect continuous aspect has been be replaced by perfect aspect in passive sentences.
5.1.5. When the clause or infinitive is used as the object in the active voice, it can’t be transformed into passive voice.
For examples:
(1) Mary thought that John was handsome.
(2) That John was handsome was thought by Mary. (F)
(3) Mary hoped to meet him.
(4) To meet him was hoped by Mary. (F)
Sentences (2) and (4) are wrong. The two sentences not only don’t accord with the rules of grammar, but also don’t accord with the language usage.
5.1.6. When the relation between subject and object is reciprocal, the sentence can be only used in active voice
5.1.6.1. Reciprocal pronouns as objects
For examples:
(1) They helped each other.
(2) Each other were helped by them. (F)
Discussion on English voice5.1.6.2. Reflexive pronouns as objects
For examples:
(1) I saw myself in mirror.
(2)Myself was seen by me in the mirror. (F)
5.1.7. When the object is cognate object, the active voice can’t be transformed into passive voice.
For examples:
(1) They laughed a heavy laugh.
(2) A heavy laugh was laughed by them. (F)
(3) He died a heroic death.
(4) A heroic death was died him. (F)
On this condition, passive voice doesn’t follow this grammar rule.
5.1.8. When the relation between object and subject expresses the part and the whole, active voice can’t be transformed into passive voice.
For examples:
(1) The doctor shook his head and turned away.
(2) They encountered a lot of hardships on the long march.
5.1.9. If there are double objects in the active voice sentence, indirect object can be transformed into the subject of passive sentence.
For examples:
(1) He gave me an English novel.
→ I was given an English novel. (F)
→ An English novel was given tome. (F)
(2) She cash me a cheque.
→ I am cashed a cheque. (F)
→ A cheque is cashed for me. (F)
5.1.10. When the object complement is in the structure “have + sth. done” this object can’t be transformed into the subject of the passive.
For examples:
He has his shirts cleaned at the dry-cleaners.
He has his hair cut.
You have yourself understood.
Dad had Joan called a doctor.
5.2. Semantic-constraints
The paper discusses on some restrictions of voice transformation. There is another restriction in semantics. The active voice doesn’t totally as the same as the passive voice. So the active and the passive are usually different in semantics. In order to follow the demand of language communication, the active and the passive can’t be transformed into each other.
5.2.1. As the subject and object transform into each other, the sentence may follow the rules of grammar. Sometimes, the active and the passive can’t transform into each other.
For examples:
(1) The students will be trained to write notes by studying the passage in detail.
(2) Studying the passage in detail will train the students to write notes.
5.2.2. The active transforms into the passive, the two sentences vary completely in meaning.
For examples:
(1) She can’t teach John.
(2) John can’t be taught.
The two sentences express two different meanings. Sentence (1) means “She is unable to teach John.” In this sentence “can” refers to “ability”. Sentence (2) means “It is impossible (for her) to teach John.” Or “John is unable to learn.” In this sentence “can” refers to “possibility”. The two sentences show that active can’t transform into passive freely. Especially, in the sentence there is a model verb.
For example:
(1) I shall punish you. (=I’m going to punish you.)
(2) You shall be punished. (=You must be punished.)
(3) Why wouldn’t Miranda ride the gray mare? (=Why did Miranda refuse?)
(4) Why wouldn’t the mare be ridden by Miranda? (=Why did the mare refuse?)
5.2.3. After the voice transformed, the meaning of active and passive are the same, but the points are different.
(1) John cleaned the bike.
(2) The bike was cleaned (by John).
The two sentences describe the same thing. Sentence (1) is to answer the question –“Who cleaned the bike?” Sentence (2) is to answer the question –“Was the bike cleaned?” If people want to know “who” cleaned the bike, it is just can answer by executor.
5.3. Situation-constraints
5.3.1. Sometimes, in order to stress the core, keep one subject or not change the subject, and make the whole sentence clear and coherent, in the sentences we have to use passive voice.
For example:
(1) He rose to speak, and was listened to with enthusiasm by the great crowd present.
(2) She came to the Derby, not only to see, but just as much to be seen.
If the two sentences are used in active voice, there will be two centers and the structu Discussion on English voicere will become loose. Look at another sentence.
(3) All his time was devoted to science; all his life was struggled through.
5.3.2. Sometimes, to choose the active or passive, it depends on the context.
For examples:
The rain destroyed the flowers.
The flowers were destroyed by the rain.
The two sentences can transform each other. They express the same thing. But the central meaning of sentence (1) is the flowers; sentence (2) is the rain.
Conclusion
In English, there are two kinds of voice, that is: active voice and passive voice. According to Zhang Keli’s New English Grammar, the passive voice can be divided into three kinds of voice, that is: true-passive voice, quasi-passive voice and pseudo-passive. This thesis discusses on them through typical examples one by one. In the thesis, the author deals with the active form of some transitive verbs which express passive meaning too. My view is correct or not, it only gives readers reference.
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[2]章振邦.新編英語語法[M].上海:上海疑問出版社,1981.6
[3]張克禮.新英語語法[M].高等教育出版社,2001
[4]A.J.Thomson, A.V.Martiner. A practical English Grammar[M].牛津大學出版社,1991
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[6]羅利群.論英語語態(tài)轉換的限制[N].黔東南民族師專學報(社哲版),1997-06
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