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美國公共行政學(xué)百年回顧 二
美國公共行政學(xué)百年回顧 二 消息是：盡管私有化對于校正公共部門的缺陷并非靈丹妙藥，但私有部門的確給公共項目帶來更有效率和更負責(zé)任的真正機會；私有化的壞消息是：政治壓力可能導(dǎo)致私有部門能干得更好的事讓公共部門干，由公共部門干更適合的事反而讓私有部門去做。
組織思想的演變：女性的觀點
到1990年，婦女在公共部門中的比例達到60%。婦女參與公共事務(wù)存在兩大問題：一是工資偏低；二是所謂的“天花板效應(yīng)”——即高層管理階層的婦女比例偏低。筆者曾經(jīng)做過計算，按照二十世紀(jì)的發(fā)展趨勢，要達到國會中男女?dāng)?shù)量平等需要400年。女權(quán)主義組織分析家安克爾(Joan Acker)在《性別組織理論》(1992)一書中認(rèn)為，長期男性對組織的控制導(dǎo)致了組織理論的男性觀點：1.男女分工產(chǎn)生了男女不同的工作類型；2.創(chuàng)立了男性組織標(biāo)志和形象；3.男女的關(guān)系是領(lǐng)導(dǎo)與被領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的關(guān)系；4.由于組織內(nèi)男女分工和機會不均，不同性別應(yīng)有不同行為和態(tài)度的觀點逐漸成為心理和思維定勢。對組織和管理的女性觀點將會對公共行政學(xué)產(chǎn)生深刻的影響。公共行政學(xué)的女權(quán)主義理論家斯蒂夫(Camilla Stivers)在《公共行政中的男女形象：合法性與行政國》(1993)中說，“只要行政領(lǐng)域被看成與性別無關(guān)，婦女就將面對目前的霍布森(Hobson)選擇，即或是接受男性行政標(biāo)志，或是接受官僚體制中靠邊站的地位”。
機構(gòu)前景：官僚體制改革還是質(zhì)量改善的繼續(xù)？
在二十世紀(jì)九十年代，新的管理見解對組織機構(gòu)應(yīng)當(dāng)如何被管理、下屬應(yīng)當(dāng)如何被指導(dǎo)、政府項目的消費者應(yīng)當(dāng)如何被對待等問題有重大影響。1992年，巴澤勒(Michael Barzelay)與阿摩亞尼(Babak Armajani)發(fā)表《突破官僚制：政府管理的新視野》。該書基于在明尼蘇達州的革新實驗，即通過強調(diào)顧客服務(wù)、給雇員授權(quán)、有選擇性的競爭和減少行政規(guī)章制度而改變公共項目。兩位作者認(rèn)為，政府不應(yīng)當(dāng)是官僚型、規(guī)章制度約束、強調(diào)控制和沒有靈活性，他們向韋伯型的傳統(tǒng)組織結(jié)構(gòu)和運作機理提出了挑戰(zhàn)。
如果說巴澤勒與阿摩亞尼對傳統(tǒng)管理的批評代表著對管理體制改革的呼吁，那么，質(zhì)量管理運動則提供了內(nèi)在改革的動力。最初的全方位質(zhì)量管理(Total Quality Management-TQM)源于私有企業(yè)部門，但《公共生產(chǎn)力與管理評論》(Public Productivity and Management Review-PPMR)在過去二十多年的努力也使我們認(rèn)識到TQM對于公共部門機構(gòu)業(yè)績與質(zhì)量改善的重要性。PPMR提供了豐富的案例以及公共機構(gòu)如何改善、引入、調(diào)整并保持連續(xù)的質(zhì)量改進的理論性評論。PPMR雜志的資深主編霍哲(Marc Holzer)教授在生產(chǎn)力與質(zhì)量管理(Productivity and Quality Management)(1995)一文中評論了質(zhì)量管理以及質(zhì)量管理對于公共部門管理的啟迪。很明顯，九十年代的TQM已經(jīng)成為公共管理的基本方法。TQM的核心特征是統(tǒng)計評估、顧客信息反饋、雇員參與質(zhì)量改善、供應(yīng)商合作。這些TQM的手段和方法已經(jīng)成為當(dāng)今多數(shù)經(jīng)理的“管理常識”。不少人認(rèn)為，質(zhì)量管理不僅適用于制造業(yè)，而且更適合服務(wù)部門。質(zhì)量管理已成為公共管理的部分基礎(chǔ)。
公共政策與分析的迅猛發(fā)展
首先，許多公共事務(wù)學(xué)院在加州大學(xué)伯克利分校的帶領(lǐng)下紛紛部分或全部轉(zhuǎn)向公共政策，盡管錫拉丘茲大學(xué)麥克斯韋爾學(xué)院及南加州大學(xué)仍然高舉公共行政大旗，亦增添了政策研究方向。最初的政策研究包括政策形成理論、政策分析技術(shù)、政策執(zhí)行、政策計劃和政策評估等，重心開始轉(zhuǎn)向政策形成（政策制定）和政策內(nèi)容（政策分析）。其次，一批新成立的雜志為政策研究增添了活力。如政策分析和管理雜志(Journal of Policy Analysis and Management)、政策研究雜志(Policy Studies Journal)、政策研究評論(Policy Studies Review)以及政策科學(xué)(Policy Sciences)等。最后，進入二十世紀(jì)九十年代，政策科學(xué)已經(jīng)成為一門獨立的研究領(lǐng)域，大有與公共行政學(xué)分庭抗禮之勢。政策分析融入經(jīng)濟學(xué)、政治學(xué)、公共財政、系統(tǒng)理論以及其它社會科學(xué)學(xué)科，以研究公共政策如何形成和如何完善政府項目。
結(jié)束語：政府改革——永恒的主題
歸納起來，萊特(Paul C. Light)在《改革的浪潮：改善政府工作，1945-1995》(1997)一書中，總結(jié)了改革的四大浪潮：1.科學(xué)管理，強調(diào)嚴(yán)格的等級制、分工、清楚的命令鏈；2.向浪費宣戰(zhàn)，重點是監(jiān)督員、審計員、核對員、評審員；3.警惕的眼睛，倡導(dǎo)陽光、公開性、透明度；4.解放管理，呼吁讓管理者去管理。
財政緊縮和業(yè)績改善只是政府面臨的諸多壓力的一部分。進入二十世紀(jì)，公眾對政府的信心在下降，這或許是政治家們不得不反復(fù)進行政府改革的主要原因。克林頓總統(tǒng)上任3個月就宣布了他的改革計劃，于1993年成立了由副總統(tǒng)戈爾掛帥的“美國業(yè)績評論委員會”(NPR)。當(dāng)我們回眸二十世紀(jì)，就不難發(fā)現(xiàn)無論是1910,1937,1949,1972,1982，還是1993的政府改革，都有一個共同的假設(shè)：即美國聯(lián)邦政府的機能失調(diào)、組織渙散、業(yè)績平平——不能讓公眾滿意。
1883年彭德爾頓法案創(chuàng)立了美國公務(wù)員委員會，公務(wù)員制度的建立以及城市膨脹的需求催生了美國的公共行政學(xué)。1887年，威爾遜提出了創(chuàng)立獨立的行政學(xué)學(xué)科的構(gòu)想。隨后，古德諾于1900年談到行政學(xué)與政治學(xué)的分離。再之后，泰勒開始了科學(xué)管理的研究。30年代的羅斯福新政，尤其是布郎諾報告直接誘發(fā)了政府部門的膨脹和改革——1993年至2000年執(zhí)政的克林頓仍舊在重塑政府。一次次改革，一次次不同的主題，變化的是內(nèi)容，不變的是要改變、要改革的努力。
改革政府并非是美國的獨有現(xiàn)象。無論是東方還是西方，無論是北半球還是南半球，無論是工業(yè)發(fā)達國家、發(fā)展中國家還是前蘇聯(lián)或東歐轉(zhuǎn)軌國家，在二十世紀(jì)末都洶涌著改革的浪潮。無論是源于財政危機、管理危機或是信仰危機，出路只有一條，那就是不斷的改革。改革政府不僅是我們時代的主旋律，也必將是未來政府所要面臨的長期挑戰(zhàn)。
作者感謝下列教授在《美國公共行政學(xué)百年回顧》及相關(guān)課程所給予筆者的指導(dǎo)和幫助：霍哲教授(Marc Holzer)、達布里克教授(Melvin Dubnick)、威克（女）教授(Marcia Whicker)、梅戈特（女）教授(Astrid Merget)、英格拉姆（女）教授(Patricia Ingraham)、布雷思萊德教授(Stuart Bretchneider)、斯特勞思曼教授(JeffreyStraussman)。
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